Corporate Social Responsibility in Banks - 2893 Words

Corporate Social Responsibility in Banks S.Kavitha[1] Abstract Corporate social responsibility stands for business contribution to sustainable development and covers company’s active participation in different fields, human rights, human resources, relations with clients, suppliers, and other stake holders, corporate governance, environment and contribution to community and society. The social responsible attitude is integral part of the identity of financial institutions like banks, and it is one of their distinctive features. The Reserve Bank of India has asked the banks to pay special attention towards integration of social and environmental concerns in their business operations. Many of the newly formed private and foreign banks†¦show more content†¦But this view is severely criticized on several grounds. On the other extreme, there is opposite view, which favors the position that it is imperative for businesses to be socially responsible. This is based on the argument that business organizations are a part of society and ha ve to serve primarily societal interests rather than narrow economic objectives such as profit maximization. In doing so they have to deal with social concerns and issues and have to allocate resources for solving social problems. Carroll’s four responsibilities of business. Archie Carroll proposes that the managers of business organizations have four responsibilities Economic Responsibilities Economic responsibilities of a business organization’s management are to produce goods and services of value to society so that the firm can repay for its creditors and shareholders. Legal Responsibilities Legal responsibilities are defined by governments in laws that management is expected to obey. For eg, U.S. business firms are required to hire and promote people based on their credentials rather then to discriminate based on non-job-related characteristics such asShow MoreRelatedCorporate Social Responsibility Of Islamic Banks1563 Words   |  7 Pagescome a long way in issues of corporate governance. However, Islamic banks need to be at the forefront of pioneering innovative, impactful, and far-reaching social responsibility and corporate governance practices since for starters, they are faith-based institutions. Islamic banks need to stop resting on their laurels and stop playing catch up in these domains. Moreover, Islamic banks need to deal conclusively with the array of challenges facing their Shari’ah corporate governance endeavors so as toRead MoreCorporate Social Responsibility : Bank Of America1776 Words   |  8 PagesSince 1998, Bank of Am erica has become one of the most successful financial institutions in the industry. With the mission to â€Å"make financial lives better, through the power of every connection†, Bank of America has operated its business align with its purpose. While assisting its clients understand their money, the company also put on a lot of effort on helping the communities by executing Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). It is undeniable that the company has successfully addressed many criticalRead MoreCorporate Social Responsibility At The Bank Of America Corporation1544 Words   |  7 PagesCorporate Social Responsibility at the Bank of America Corporation Overview of Corporate Social Responsibility the Bank of America Corporation Background Information About Bank of America The Bank of America Corporation (Bank of America) is a bank and financial holding company that serves â€Å"individual consumers, small- and middle-market businesses, institutional investors, corporations and Governments with†¦ bank and nonbank financial services and products.† (Reuters) Profiting $5.32 billion inRead MoreCorporate Social Responsibility in the C0-Operative Bank2256 Words   |  10 PagesID: C0357076 LJMU: 480466 Topic: Corporate Social Responsibility- The Evaluation of the Co-operative Bank’s CSR and Ethical Stance Contents Page 1. Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 2. Corporate Social Responsibility †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 2 2.1 Carroll’s CSR Models †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2 2.2 Modern CSR Argument †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 2.3 Introduction of 3C-SR Model †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 3. The Co-operative bank and their Stakeholders †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Read MoreCorporate Social Responsibility Strategy for Bank of America1130 Words   |  5 PagesOrganizational Background- Bank of America is a multinational banking and financial services firm that has become a mega-giant the second largest holding company in the U.S. and the 3-4th largest bank in terms of overall capitalization. The headquarters are in Charlotte, North Carolina, with the bank servicing clients in over 150 countries and some type of business relationship with over 99 per cent of U.S. Fortune 500 companies and 85 per cent of the Global Fortune 400. Forbes lists BofA as theRead MoreThe Benefits of Implementing Corporate Social Responsibilities by a Brazilian Bank1335 Words   |  5 Pagesresearch paper, the benefits of implementing corporate social responsibilities by a Brazilian bank are explained. Due to competitive environment in mark et, CSR perspectives are vital in a company strategy. A lot of research has been made on on corporate social responsibilities of a bank, but still there is a lot more to explore. Trustworthiness between bank and customer is very important for strengthening of an organizational brand. General view is that banks invest money for their benefit, but actuallyRead MoreThe Bank of America Corporation: Corporate Social Responsibility and Ethics3003 Words   |  12 Pagesï » ¿Executive Summary Bank of America Corporation, a multinational banking and financial services organization that is the second largest holding company in the entire United States by assets, and the fourth largest bank by capitalization. Headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina, the banks serves clients in more than 150 countries and has a business relationship with over 99 percent of U.S. Fortune 500 companies and 83 percent of the Fortune Global 400. As of 2010, the bank is the 5th largest companyRead MoreChallenges in Implementing Csr1580 Words   |  7 PagesChallenges in implementing CSR Corporate Social Responsibility can be separate into internal dimension and external dimension. Internal dimension and external dimension Internal dimension focuses on organizational practices with respect to internal stakeholders that should be aligned to corporate social responsibility standards. It includes human resource management, safety and health, environmental impact and corporate change. External dimension focus on an organization practices towards externalRead MoreCorporate Social Responsibility : A Comparative Study Of Sbi And Icici Essay1611 Words   |  7 PagesCorporate Social Responsibility: A Comparative Study of SBI and ICICI in India Ms. AnkitaPatel1 1Research scholar, Business Studies Dept., Sardar Patel University AdhyapakSahayak, Anand Law College, Anand-388001, Gujarat, India. Email – 2007ankitapatel@gmail.com Abstract: At present Banking sector plays a significant role in the development of the nation, not only as a pillar of the financial system of the nation but also by contributing toward the society. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)Read MoreAn Organization s Corporate Social Responsibility957 Words   |  4 Pages An organization’s Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) drives them to look out for the different interests of society. Most business corporations undertake responsibility for the impact of their organizational pursuits and various activities on their customers, employees, shareholders, communities and the environment. With the high volume of general competition between different companies and organizations in varied fields, CSR has become a morally imperative commitment, more than one enforced

Operation Management - 2295 Words

| | | | | | Operations Management MGT 6170 Final essay Southern Toro Distributor Student: Hoang Xuan Linh Class: CMU 12A Total pages: 10 Score SECTION 1: CASE SUMARY Gioe Melaney is the general director of Southern Toro – a subsidiary company included in the distribution system of Toron Coporation in Galveston, Taxas. The case†¦show more content†¦Second, the classification in inventory management is still inaccurate. That results in some problems such as: the severe lack of some products which are in growing demand (1 inch valve series 230), the redundancy making storage expenses go up and the stagnancy in storage area (to products like gear driven rotary and monitor controller) Third, , under the circumstance that Toro doesn’t have adequate conditions for goods inventory, in a bid to avoid out-of-stock situations and failure to supply goods for customers, the company could resort to use receipts of other distributors. Considering these above mentioned features, to take over the company, it is essential for Joe Jr. to take due attention to a proper approach for inventory management, calculate an appropriate inventory lev el for each product, making it in line with the company’s business strategy, the market demand in the upcoming period: To well-sold materials with high sales, it requires reviewing ordering times, making them in accordance with 3 ordering times in a year of Toro corporation. It’s also necessary to calculate a reasonable level of inventory for materialsShow MoreRelatedOperations Management : Operation Management1355 Words   |  6 PagesOperations Management Introduction Operations management is the activity of managing the resources that create and deliver services and products. The operations function is the part of the organization that is responsible for this activity. Every organization has an operations function because every organization creates some type of services and/or products. However, not all types of organization will necessarily call the operations function by this name. Operations managers are the people who haveRead MoreOperation Management - Cadburyworld2493 Words   |  10 Pagestechnology to streamline the operation process) and facility costs (old and outdated facilities) at lowest possible. In return, they have to compromise low costs with their other objectives. The unskilled staffs and outdated facilities are compromised with the quality in the core process. For example, the brief video (facility) in the packaging plant is outdated and requires commentary notes from some guides. However, the unskilled guides are not familiar with the operations so they need to read fromRead MoreOperation Management And Operations Management2148 Words   |  9 PagesOperation management Introduction Being an operations manager is not an easy task, it involves good control and responsibilities for the major activities within the organisations in order to achieve goals that might be in form of services or in form of goods. The operation management roles may be different from business to business depending on the size and resources available, each organisation has its own operations functions, and in order to produces goods or services they have to convert theRead MoreImportance Of Production And Operations Management2317 Words   |  10 Pagesthe production and operation of enterprises. In order to remain competitive, companies in different countries have different factors of competitive advantage. A clear competitive advantage is the key to gain success in production and operation management. An effective operations management is the foundation of enterprise competitive advantage and the fundamental guarantee to realize corporate strategy. This essay deals with the importance of production and operations management in the enterprise,Read MoreOperations Management : Operation Management Essay2171 Words   |  9 PagesOperation Management Operations administration concentrates on precisely dealing with the procedures to create and circulate items and administrations. Operations administration is the procedure, which joins and changes different assets utilized as a part of the creation/operations subsystem of the association into quality included item/benefits in a controlled way according to the arrangements of the association. In this way, it is that part of an association, which is worried with the changeRead MoreOperation Management2751 Words   |  12 PagesTABLE OF CONTENTS 1. OPERATION MANAGEMENT 3 1.1. DEFINITION OF OPERATION MANAGEMENT 3 1.2. THE ROLE OF OPERATION MANAGER 3 1.3. RELATIONSHIP OF OPERATION MANAGEMENT WITH OTHER CORE FUNCTIONS 3 2. CASE STUDIES 3 2.1. HEATHROW INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT 3 2.2. NESTLÉ UK CHOCOLATE FACTORY 3 3. MAJOR UNDERSTANDINGS OF THE STUDY 3 4. CONCLUSIONS 3 REFERENCES 3 1. Operation Management For the success of an organization, the management crew plays a major role. An organizational structure is based on differentRead MoreOperations Management986 Words   |  4 PagesOPERATIONS MANAGEMENT Select two organisations that you are familiar with – one with a service output and one with a product output, and compare and contrast these organisations with respect to the following aspects: 1.1 The process of transformation of inputs to outputs 1.2 Process and Capacity design 1.3 Supply Chain management 1.4 Scheduling Operations Management refers to the management of the production system that transforms inputs into finished goods and services, (http://csuponomaRead MoreOperation Management2436 Words   |  10 PagesOPERATION MANAGEMENT IS IMPORTANT TO ALL BUSINESS To be able produce specialized managers capable of fulfilling strategic tasks within business and government enterprises the need for the practice of operations management cannot be forgone. Operations management is very significant in business operations since it forms the heart of the organisation by controlling the system of operation. Operations management deals with the design, operation, and enhancement of the systems that generate and deliverRead MoreOperations Management Chapter 18 Manual1950 Words   |  8 PagesChApter 18 Management of Waiting Lines Teaching Notes Some of the math and calculations can be left out in order to focus more clearly on the concepts of waiting lines. For example, all infinite source problems, including single channel (except constant service time) can be handled using the infinite source queuing table. In the past, queuing presented students with a good bit of computational requirements, and because of that, students frequently lost sight of the underlying concepts. WithRead MoreOperations Management1791 Words   |  8 PagesQUESTION 1 Operations management must be managed properly in order to improve an organization’s productivity and profitability. In the Cadbury World case, several micro and macro processes are involved and those processes bring some impacts to Cadbury World. Thus, Cadbury World must possess a sustainable micro and macro processes to achieve the best outcome and performance. Micro processes that involved are easily to manage compared to macro processes because macro processes are hard to manage

Romanticism Poem and the Concept of Mercy Free Essays

The concept of mercy can be a very hard thing for one to grasp. One may find themselves asking â€Å"Whom shall be given mercy? †, and â€Å"How much mercy should be shown? †. There is no definite answer to those questions as mercy can be shown in different ways. We will write a custom essay sample on Romanticism Poem and the Concept of Mercy or any similar topic only for you Order Now There are three particular works that emphasize the concept of mercy, each showing a different perspective. The three works that use very distinctive ways to show mercy are The Merchant of Venice, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, and Verses Upon the Burning of our House. All of the themes of these works are much alike, as they all involve the comparison of mercy to a great power. However, there are a few distinctions among the works. In The Merchant of Venice, by William Shakespeare, the author uses a particular caption in the play to show how the concept of mercy should be perceived. Shakespeare shows the concepts of mercy by explaining how powerful mercy. Shakespeare shows this by stating, â€Å"It is an attribute to God himself,† (IV. i. 193) thus saying that God uses mercy and so should everyone else. In the narrative Versus Upon the Burning of our House, the author, Anne Bradstreet, talks about the merciful God, and how he has saved her from destruction. She writes about how she has become too materialistic and how her merciful God has helped her in her time of need. This can be shown when the author writes, â€Å"And to my God my heart did cry/To straighten me in my distress,† (8-9) In Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, Jonathan Edwards writes about the Mercy of God as well. His account differs from Bradstreet’s a little, as he is talking about how God is the reason for everyone living. He says that if it were not for a merciful God, then no one would be living. This can be supported by the author stating, â€Å"It is nothing but His mere pleasure that keeps you from being this moment swallowed up in everlasting destruction,† (56) Even though these works have different variations of the concept of mercy, the overall theme is the power of mercy is unending. All three of these works demonstrate that mercy can be used in many different ways and different amounts. Although, as stated before, the theme is mostly the same over all the works, the tone is very different. Each of these works have their own clear-cut tones. Shakespeare takes on the tone of appreciation. While reading the passage, readers observe Shakespeare appreciating mercy and all its glory. Shakespeare writes, â€Å"It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven,† (IV. i. 185) giving the reader the illustration that mercy is very plentiful and gentle. Countless times throughout the passage Shakespeare speaks of the power of mercy and just how wonderful it is. As for Bradstreet and Edwards, they take on totally different tones. Bradstreet’s tone is thankfulness of mercy. The author comes across within the passage as being very thankful for Gods mercy and how she would be lost without it. This can be proving by the following quote, â€Å"I blest his grace that gave and took,/That laid my goods now in the dust. † (14-15) This is a prime example of the author thanking God for having mercy and helping her rather than punishing her. Both Shakespeare and Bradstreet talk about what can happen when mercy is present. Edwards on the other hand talks about what will happen without mercy. Edwards describes violent and vivid images of destruction in his writing. All of which can happen without the mercy of God. He speaks of how you should fear the absence of mercy saying, â€Å"Your wickedness makes you as it were heavy as lead, and to tend downward with great weight and pressure towards hell; and if God should let you go, you would immediately sink and swiftly descend and plunge into the bottomless gulf†¦. † (56) Over all, mercy is said to be praised for its presence, and feared for its absence. The authors use multiple ways of showing their own perspective on the concept of mercy. The three authors’ uses of literary devices in their works help strongly support their ideas on the concept of mercy. For instance, Shakespeare uses a simile that compares mercy as being better than a crown for a king. He writes, â€Å"It becomes the throned monarch better than his crown. † This simile backs up the idea of mercy being powerful, and it can be the most powerful in those with the most power. Bradstreet uses an extended metaphor saying that the burning of her house is like the burning of her sins. She thanks God for saving her from her material things which she feels are a sin. Edwards uses multiple similes and metaphors showings Gods power and how everyone is doomed without him. For instance he writes, â€Å"The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much a one holds a spider or some loathsome insect over the fir, abhors you, and is dreadfully provoked,† giving the reader the understanding that God is unbelievably greater than people. Each writer uses different literary devices to strengthen their views on the concept of mercy, and each is used in a very strategic manner. The concept of mercy can be interpreted by many different people many different ways. There is no set rules of mercy, and it is up for discussion among people. Everyone has their own ideas on how mercy is and should be. Who’s idea is right? Well, there is no incorrect or correct way to show mercy. In the three works of literature discussed above, each author has their own interpretation of the concept of mercy. Each work has a very distinctive way of proving their point, and each has a similarities and differences with the other works as to how mercy should be perceived. How to cite Romanticism Poem and the Concept of Mercy, Papers

Methods of Genetic Mapping-Free-Samples-Myassignmentshelp.com

Question: Using the data generated from the fly lab, Compare all and match brown (eyecolour) gene to two its closest genes. Answer: Introduction To fully understand genetics we need to know the various terminologies found in the unit. All living things have genes. They are the specific information encoded for a particular trait. Genes are located on the chromosomes. Each gene occupies a specific location known as Loci. Human beings have a total of twenty-three chromosomes. The first twenty-two is located in the somatic cells. They are known as autosomes. They are diploid in number. The twenty-third chromosome is found in the gametes. They are known as sex chromosomes. They are responsible for sex determination. They are haploid in number. The outward appearance of an organism is known as its phenotype. The genetic composition of an organism is known as its genotype. Each individual organism has a specific genotype and phenotype throughout its lifetime. The specific form of a gene for studying genetics is known as alleles. For each trait, an organism has two forms of the allele. If the alleles are the same type then the organism is said to be homozygous. If the alleles are different types the organism is said to be heterozygous (Orel, 1984). There are two different types of genes, dominant gene, and recessive genes. Dominant genes are genes that are expressed irrespective of being homozygous or heterozygous. Recessive genes are genes whose effect is sometimes masked and not expressed. These genes are only expressed in the heterozygous state. The character of a gene is determined by the nature of the gene or the allele. A trait is a particular form of character. For example, a character could be eye color and the trait is the different forms of color, for example, white or red color (Orel, 1984). Mendel, the father of genetics, developed a means to study genes through monohybrid crosses, dihybrid crosses, trihybrid cross and the use of a chi square. Mendel also discovered that a gene separates individually during a cross such that the offspring will have one gene from each parent. This is the law of segregation. He also discovered that a gene is expressed independently of other factors surrounding it. This is the law of independent assortment. The law of probability states that the probability of simultaneous occurrence of two independent events equals to the product of the probability of their separate occurrence (Stern, 1966). There are different methods of mapping. This includes the use of Mendel's cross, use of a punnet square and use of a chi-square. Mendel's cross is used in determining the monohybrid inheritance. They are simple and can the results are accurate. A punnet square is used for obtaining dihybrid inheritance. The punnet square drawn and using simple mathematics results of the offspring is obtained. The chi-square considers the possibility of any deviation of a ratio and the size of a given sample and expressed this data as a single value Aims To understand fully the relationship between the organisms phenotype and its genotype. To be able to show monohybrid inheritance and dihybrid inheritance. To use genetic crosses to locate the position of a gene. To show the use of statistical methods to approve or disapprove a hypothesis To stimulate practically the Mendel inheritance Results Assignment 1: Monohybrid, Dihybrid, and trihybrid inheritance. Monohybrid inheritance is an inheritance performed involving one gene loci. Two parents with particular traits are crossed and the result obtains results in offspring with certain traits. It is performed using Mendel's cross. A dihybrid cross refers to an inheritance involving two gene loci. The results are obtained using a punnet square. Dihybrid inheritance results in complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance (Soudek, 1984). In this experiment, cross a wild type female with a male with white eyes. Observe the F1 and F2 generation. The results for the monohybrid inheritance after crossing the homozygous wild type red eye and the homozygous white eyes is that the F generation has red eyes. This means that the gene for red eyes is dominant over the gene for white eyes. The F2 generation obtained showed that the offspring that both red eyes and white eyes in the ratio of 3:1. The genotype however varied in the ratio of 1:2:1. This further proved that the gene for red eyes is dominant over the gene for white eyes. The results of the dihybrid inheritance are that the F1 generation is heterozygous for each of the two pairs of a gene. This is because both parents were homozygous. Selfing the F1 generation resulted in the F2 generation. The phenotypic ratio was 9:3;3:1. This ratio showed complete dominance. If there was incomplete dominance the phenotypic ratio would be 3:6:3:1:2:1. Co-dominance is when the crossing of two traits results in a completely new trait that is not found in either of the parents. In incomplet e dominance, the phenotype is an intermediate of the two traits (Soudek, 1984). None of the alleles is expressed Assignment 2.Test cross This is a cross used to determine the genotype of an unknown crossing. In this type of cross, an individual of dominant phenotype is crossed with another of unknown genotype. It is used to determine whether an individual is heterozygous or homozygous for a particular character. In this experiment, cross a female with brown eye color and a male with ebony body color. Note the results. Also, cross a male with brown eye color and ebony body color with a female that is wild type. Observe and record the data obtained. The results show that if the unknown is homozygous the offspring have the same phenotype. If the unknown is heterozygous the resulting offspring have a phenotypic ratio of 1:2:1 Assignment 3: Lethal genes. These are genes which when expressed the effects kill the organism. The genes may be dominant or recessive. The organism hardly reaches maturity. Lethal genes result in the death of an offspring thus reducing the number of offspring drastically. The new phenotypic ratio is 2:1. In this experiment, design a cross between two flies with asterapedia mutation for antennae. Observe and record. Set up a control using a fruit fly that is wild type and another that has asterapedia mutations for the antennae. This will help prove that the lethal gene is recessive in nature. The experiment shows that the lethal gene is recessive in the fruit fly. The gene results in death. However, the offspring survive if the gene is heterozygous hence it is not expressed by the individual. The offspring can live a normal life. The phenotypic ratio of the experiment was 2:1. One offspring were homozygous for the lethal gene (Russell, 2006). Assignment 4: Epistasis The effect of one gene is masked or not expressed due to the presence of another non-allelic gene. This is against Mendel's law of independent assortment. The gene may be affected due to the physical environment. In this experiment, design a cross with a female fruit fly that has vestigial wing size and a male fruit fly that has incomplete wing vein mutation. Observe and note down the results. Also set up another cross with a female with apterous wing size mutation and a male fruit fly with radius incomplete wing vein mutation (Russell, 2006). Observe and compare the two crosses. Note down the results. The result shows that one gene was not expressed due to the presence of a known allelic gene. The results are obtained using a punnet square. The phenotypic ratio is 9:3:4 Assignment 5: Sex linkage. An organism may be monoecious or dioecious. A monoecious is an organism which produces both the male and the female gametes in the same organism. A dioecious is an organism which the male and female gametes are found in different organisms. There are various sex systems. In the fruit fly, the have an XX-XY system the females are XX and the males are XY. This is similar to human beings and most mammals. Some gene may be carried on the sex chromosomes. This means that the genes will be inherited together with the genes for sex. In this experiment, design a cross for a female fruit fly with tan body and wild type male. Observe and note down the results obtained. Design another experiment between a female fruit fly with vestigial wing size mutation and a white eye type male fruit fly. Observe and record the results obtained. The result shows that some traits are found in females only and others in males only. Irrespective of whether the gene is dominant or recessive it will be expressed in the offspring. The result can be obtained using a simple Mendels cross. Assignment 6: recombination. During fertilization, the gene may undergo mutation and be recombined. In this experiment, design a cross for a female with an eyeless mutation for eye shape and a male with shaven bristles. Observe the results and note down The result shows that the genes underwent recombinatio Conclusion In conclusion, the various methods of genetic mapping yielded the same results. We use of Mendel's cross, use of punnet square or the chi-square depending on what results are needed. If statistical data is needed then a chi-square is used. We have also seen that two organisms can have the same phenotype but different genotype Genetic mapping has proved to be very important in todays society. In the field of medicine genetic mapping has been used to discover drugs that can treat diseases that were once incurable. This has greatly advanced the field of medicine. Genetic mapping has also been used to understand the root causes of diseases, for example, the sickle cell. This has helped to reduce the spread of the disease and has created awareness of particular environmental factors leading to diseases. Genetic mapping has also been used in developing strains of bacteria that can be used to generate bio fuel. Bio fuel is cheaper and easier to use. It is also environmentally friendly. The knowledge of genetic mapping is used by sewage companies and garbage disposal companies by using bacteria to degrade the waste resulting in an environmentally friendly of reducing the toxicity of waste. This is also a method of proper disposal of waste. In agriculture, genetic mapping has been used in developing new crops that are resistant to drought, pest, diseases and so much more. The new crops yield higher produce that is of a much more higher quality than regular crops. The technique has also been applied in livestock resulting in much more healthier livestock. The livestock produces better produce in terms of quality and quantity. This has greatly improved the field of agriculture. Genetic mapping has also been used in forensics. Today paternity test can be performed much more quickly and more efficiently due to the use of genetic mapping. It has also helped in identifying victims of burns. Sometime during a fire, some victims may be burned beyond recognition. Genetic mapping is used in identifying who the victims are and where are from. Other Experiments There were no other experiments performed at the moment. Researchers are still trying to understand Mendels inheritance Appendix In the fruit fly, primary on disjunction could occur. The gene responsible for the red eye color is found on the X chromosome hence it is a sex linked gene. The recessive gene for white eyes is found also on the X chromosome. white eyes are eyes with a bright red color and an ocellus that is colorless. A white female crossed with a red eye male will result in the F1 generation having red eyed females and white eyed males. This shows that the red eye is dominant. However, in some rare cases due to nondisjunction, this was not the case. Nondisjunction is the failure of the x chromosome to separate during fertilization. This results in an organism having an extra X chromosome or no X chromosome at all. Symbolizing X+ for red eyes and Xv for white eyes, and each of the autosomes as A. a cross between a white eyed female, AAXvXv and a red eye male AAX+Y, the result is as follows; AAXvX+ - red female AAXvY- white male AAXvXvX+- metafemale, rare dies AAXvXvY- white female (rare) AAX+O- sterile red male, rare AAYO- die early, rare The metafemale is weak and survives beyond the pupal stage. In the fruit fly, the sex is determined by the ratio of X chromosomes to autosome cells. If there are more autosomes that X chromosomes the individual is male. If the X chromosomes are more or equal to autosomes the individual is female. The Y chromosomes have no function in gender and it only plays a role in fertility. References Orel V. New york: oxford university press 1984 Stern C and Sherwood E.R. the Origin Of Genetics. A Mendel source book. San Francisco: Freeman 1966 Soudek D. Gregor Mendel and the people around him. Am J. Hum Genet. May 1984 Russell P.J iGenetic. A molecular approach San Francisco: Benjamin Cunnings. 2006